Once they are at the site of infection, they swell in size and develop into the mature defensive cells—the macrophages—that enter the solutions based treatment tissues. After eliminating pathogens by phagocytosis, the monocytes exhibit pathogen-derived proteins and other molecules (i.e., antigens) on their surfaces. Finally, monocytes and macrophages also produce certain cytokines that help regulate immune system activity. Alcohol alters the makeup of your gut microbiome — home to trillions of microorganisms performing several crucial roles for your health — and affects those microorganisms’ ability to support your immune system.
- Here, alcohol can damage the epithelial cells, T-cells, and neutrophils in the GI tract, all of which can alter the gut barrier function and allow intestinal microorganisms to leak into circulation.
- In other studies, chronic alcohol feeding impaired Th1 responses to a hepatitis C virus protein, a defect that was hypothesized to result from impaired secretion of IL-2 and GM–CSF by dendritic and T-cells (Geissler et al. 1997).
- Both innate and adaptive immunity rely on a multitude of different cells and molecules.
- Though there’s still limited data on the link between alcohol and COVID-19, past evidence shows alcohol consumption can worsen the outcomes from other respiratory illnesses by damaging the lungs and gut, and impairing the cells responsible for immune function.
- The article by Dolganiuc in this issue explores the synergistic effects of alcohol and hepatitis viruses on the progression of liver disease as well as alcohol consumption’s injurious effect on liver antiviral immunity.
Protective role of light-moderate dose of alcohol in autoimmune diseases
These articles detail how alcohol affects the immune system and how researchers are harnessing this knowledge to help prevent and treat alcohol-related harm. Despite these observations, which shed some light on alcohol’s effects on B-cells and their functions, some questions remain to be answered. For example, the acetaldehyde that is formed during alcohol metabolism can interact with other proteins in the cells, interfering with their function. Therefore, it is possible that acetaldehyde also interacts with antibodies and thereby may alter antibody responses; however, this remains to be established (Thiele et al. 2008). Similarly, more work is needed to determine whether alcohol inhibits specific aspects of B-cell differentiation, such as immunoglobulin class switching and cell survival. The consequences of how many steps in alcoholics anonymous impaired gut structural integrity are significant (see figure 1).
Alcohol-induced changes in tight junctions cause increased intestinal leaks that lead to translocation of bacteria-derived products such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These molecules enter the circulation to the liver where they activate endothelial and stellate cells as well as hepatocytes, resulting in a chronic inflammatory environment aggravating organ injury. The innate immune response to a pathogen is followed by an adaptive immune response that is activated only after the body is exposed to the pathogen for the first time and which is specific to that one pathogen. Monocytes and macrophages are leukocytes with a single-lobed nucleus that also act as phagocytes and which therefore also are called mononuclear phagocytes. Monocytes are an immature form of these cells that circulate in the blood until they are alerted to the presence of a pathogen in a particular tissue.
How alcohol impacts the lungs
Lastly, NK cells are abundant in the liver (Gao et al. 2009) and recognize cells that have low levels of a protein called class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on their surface. This reduced class I MHC expression can result from infection with certain types of viruses. NK cells eliminate cells with low class I MHC expression as well as cancer cells.
With such conditions, the body’s immune system attacks not only invaders but also its own cells. So if the liver’s immune system is unnecessarily activated due to heavy drinking, it can lead to liver disease. The first point of contact for alcohol after consumption is the gastrointestinal (GI) system before it is absorbed into the bloodstream. Here, alcohol can damage the epithelial cells, T-cells, and neutrophils in the GI tract, all of which can alter the gut barrier function and allow intestinal microorganisms to leak into circulation.
Neuroimmune Function and the Consequences of Alcohol Exposure
If you’re unfamiliar, inflammation is what naturally occurs when your immune system goes into action. The redness and swelling that you see is the result of your body sending more blood to provide nutrients to the site of injury. “Excessive alcohol consumption can cause nerve damage and irreversible forms of dementia,” Dr. Sengupta warns. Your body breaks alcohol down into a chemical called acetaldehyde, which damages your DNA. Damaged DNA can cause a cell to grow out of control, which results in cancerous tumors.
Some of the most notable contributors to the innate immune response include natural killer (NK) cells, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs). These may include infections after surgery, traumatic injury, or burns; accelerated progression of HIV disease; adult respiratory distress syndrome and other opportunistic lung infections; and infection with hepatitis C virus, cirrhosis, or liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma). Though there’s still limited data on the link between alcohol and COVID-19, past evidence shows alcohol consumption can worsen the outcomes from other respiratory illnesses by damaging kaiser drug treatment the lungs and gut, and impairing the cells responsible for immune function.
It seems that drinking alcohol may also damage the immune cells that line the intestines and serve as the first line of defense against bacteria and viruses. Each of these events is mediated by the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), which can be inhibited by alcohol consumption and thus prevent the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In vivo studies have confirmed that binge drinking with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of approximately 0.4% can reduce the production of various inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, and IL-12. An important way in which alcohol may beneficially impact autoimmune inflammation is via its effects on fatty acid metabolism in the gut. While at high doses alcohol is known to lead to fatty acid dysregulation and development of fatty liver disease,102–104 at lower doses, alcohol may contribute to the generation of gut-derived anti-inflammatory fatty acids, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)103,104 (Figure 1).
How much alcohol you have to drink before it weakens your immune system
The immune system is typically categorized into the innate and adaptive immune response systems, both of which are essential components in the body’s defense against pathogens. Alcohol can either activate or suppress the immune system depending on, for example, how much is consumed and how concentrated it is in the various tissues and organs. That dual action predisposes heavy drinkers both to increased infection and to chronic inflammation.
In such patients, alcohol impairs mucosal immunity in the gut and lower respiratory system. This impairment can lead to sepsis and pneumonia and also increases the incidence and extent of postoperative complications, including delay in wound closure. Bagby and colleagues review substantial evidence that alcohol further disrupts the immune system, significantly increasing the likelihood of HIV transmission and progression. Alcohol’s effects on the structural host defense of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
Several studies have also shown that the lungs are highly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol. For example, alcohol can reduce the ability of respiratory epithelium cells to remove mucous from the lungs, which can directly damage lung tissue and weaken the proper functioning of the lungs over time. Although this chronic weakening of lung function may not cause any immediate symptoms, these effects can manifest when a severe respiratory infection occurs. Alcohol consumption does not have to be chronic to have negative health consequences. In fact, research shows that acute binge drinking also affects the immune system. There is evidence in a number of physiological systems that binge alcohol intake complicates recovery from physical trauma (see the article by Hammer and colleagues).
The trillions of microbes in your colon and large and small intestines are critical to proper digestion. In reality, there’s no evidence that drinking beer (or your alcoholic beverages of choice) actually contributes to belly fat. 4Expression of TNF-α and IL-1β requires the actions of a protein called nuclear factor (NF)- B.
Alcohol consumption may be expected to contribute toward an increased risk of or exacerbation of autoimmune diseases given its pro-inflammatory properties. In the following section, we will delineate the known alcohol dose-dependent effects on autoimmune diseases. The cell-mediated arm of the innate immunity is orchestrated primarily by granulocytes, monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.